http://www.umsl.edu/divisions/artscience/communication/

Faculty

Michael Beatty, Professor*; Chairperson
Ph.D., Ohio State University
Donald Shields, Professor Emeritus
Ph.D., University of Minnesota
Elizabeth Kizer, Associate Professor Emerita
Ph.D., Purdue University
C. Thomas Preston, Associate Professor*
Ph.D., University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Alice E. Hall, Assistant Professor
Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania
Alan D. Heisel, Assistant Professor
Ed.D., West Virginia University
Yan Tian, Assistant Professor
Ph.D., Temple University
Jina Yoo, Assistant Professor
Ph.D., Michigan State University
Alan Akerson, Lecturer
M.A., University of Missouri-St. Louis
Leighanne Heisel, Lecturer
M.A., West Virginia University
Clark McMillion, Lecturer
M.A., State University College of New York at Brockport

*members of Graduate Faculty

The faculty represents many fields within the discipline of communication including interpersonal communication, organizational communication, mass communication, and rhetoric in addition to public relations. Most faculty members contribute to the continued growth of the knowledge base, publishing the results of their research in scholarly journals and presenting papers at national and international professional conferences. By integrating theory, research, and practice, the faculty is able to offer a comprehensive approach to contemporary communication problems.

General Information

The Bachelor of Arts in Communication
The B.A. in communication is a flexible degree program that allows the student to tailor a specific concentration to meet the student’s individual needs and interests. The faculty encourages all students to meet early and often with their faculty adviser to select a meaningful group of courses for a coherent, career-oriented academic program.

Minors and Certificates for Communication
The department actively supports the following minor and certificate programs open to students majoring in communication: Minor in Public Affairs Journalism, Minor in Photographic Studies, Minor in Legal Studies, Certificate in Writing, and Certificate in Secondary Education. For more information, see Certificate Programs and Interdisciplinary Studies in this Bulletin.

Master of Arts in Communication
The Master of Arts program, provides the opportunity for an advanced degree program in communication with emphasis in organizational and mass communication. For further details, please see the Graduate Studies section of the Communication Department listings.

Undergraduate Studies

General Education Requirements
Majors must satisfy the university and college general education requirements. The college's foreign language requirement may be taken in any language. Communication courses may not be taken on a satisfactory/unsatisfactory basis.

In addition to the requirements for the B.A. in communication and general requirements set by the College of Education, students must meet the state requirements for certification.

The B.A. and certification for grades 7-12 can be completed by taking a minimum of 39 hours in communication, selected according to departmental recommendations. The B.A. and certification for grades 7-9 can be obtained by taking 36 hours in communication, selected according to departmental recommendations. Requirements of the College of Education include courses in professional education and English 3600, The Curriculum and Methods of Teaching English (same as SEC ED 3600).

Graduate Studies
The department offers the Master of Arts degree in communication.

Students complete one of the following exit projects: No less than a 6-hour thesis or a 6-hour internship. After consultation with the graduate coordinator the student selects either the 36 hour or the 30 hour program and, in the latter case, selects the appropriate exit project with input from prospective exit project committee members, . The internship option requires submission of an essay in which the coursework and internship experiences are integrated. Internship essay and thesis must be approved by the student’s committees and assigned a grade by the advisor. The candidate must pass an oral examination conducted by student's committee regardless of exit option selected.

Career Outlook
The B.A. in communication prepares students for careers in numerous fields. Past graduates are working in the following positions: promotion and public relations, administration, advertising, marketing, Web page design, market research, corporate media, sales, training, speech writing, teaching, and research. Other students have pursued graduate education in communication programs offering the M.A. and Ph.D. degrees.

Course Descriptions
Prerequisites may be waived by consent of the department.

Students who have earned 24 or more semester hours of credit at any accredited post-secondary institutions(s) before the start of the fall 2002 semester must meet the general education requirements stipulated in the UM-St Louis 2001-2002 Bulletin. The following courses fulfill the Humanities breadth of study requirements as described in that Bulletin:
1070, 1160, 2271, 2272, 3337, 3340, 3341, 3342, 3343, 3344, 3350, 3352.

The following courses fulfill the Social Sciences breadth of study requirements:
1065, 1135, 2218, 2230, 2231, 2243, 3330, 3331 3332, 3333, 4335, 3350, 3354, 4356.

1030 Interpersonal Communication I (3) [C]
Development of basic one-to-one communication skills. Includes self-awareness, listening, nonverbal communication, feedback, roleplaying, and receiver awareness.

1040 Introduction to Public Speaking (3) [C]
Theories and techniques of organization, evidence, argumentation, persuasion, and delivery in public speaking.

1041 Basic Public Debate (3)
History and practice of debate in the public arena, with opportunities to prepare for a variety of public forums for argumentation. Various debate formats, including panel discussions, joint news conferences, and audience-participation debates, in a variety of settings, will be surveyed.

1050 Introduction to Mass Media (3) [C,SS]
Introduction to oral, print, and electronic media of communication. Emphasis on history, theory, and criticism of the mass media as cultural institutions.

1065 Introduction to Information Technology (3)
The production and consumption of information by individuals, the work place and society. Emphasis on the changing nature of communication processes as a result of the expansion of communication technologies.

1070 Introduction to Cinema (3)
An introduction to the history, rhetoric, and aesthetics of film. Film theory and criticism will be studied as well as major genres, authors, and artists.

1108 Advertising Copywriting (3)
Same as English 2080. To give students a hands-on approach for writing advertising material for print and broadcast against tight deadlines in a professional setting.

1110 Introduction to Radio and Television Broadcasting (3)
An introduction to broadcasting, including the areas of history, government regulations, station operation, and program development.

1113 Basic Television Studio Production (3)
Study of basic television studio production techniques and practices. The class will provide the student with practical experience in studio camera operating, directing, producing, switching, audio mixing and lighting. Lab arranged.

1114 Radio Production I (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1110. Theory and practice in the creation of radio programs. Laboratory experience included.

1118 Radio and Television Announcing (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1110; 1114, and 2210 recommended. Training in radio and television studio procedures. Production and criticism of lab programs, including news, continuity, interviews, and oral improvisation. Classroom meetings at the radio lab and the television lab, plus lab hours to be arranged.

1130 Interpersonal Communication II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1030. Interpersonal communication in relationships within group contexts, such as family, classroom, and business. Various theories and diagnostic approaches to interpersonal communication. Extensive laboratory sessions utilizing individual and group exercises.

1135 Communication Theory (3)
Survey of elements and processes critical to human communication behavior. Comparison of influential communication theories.

1140 Advanced Public Speaking (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. Application of advanced public speaking skills, with emphasis on special occasion speaking situations.

1141 Business and Professional Speaking (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. Application of communication skills in the business and professional environment with emphasis on presentational speaking, organizational constructs germane to professional careers, and uses of various media.

1143 Parliamentary Procedure (2)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. Study and practice in rules of procedure by which self-governing groups transact business.

1150 Introduction to Public Relations (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040 or 1050. Publicity methods and public relations representation of profit and nonprofit institutions to the public; use of communication research and media, as applied to the public relations profession.

1160 Fundamentals of Oral Interpretation (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040 or consent of instructor. An introduction to the analysis of literature and to the principles of its oral presentation by the interpreter.

1193 Practicum in Applied Communication (1-3)
Prerequisite: Consent of instructor. Practicum work at any of the UM-St. Louis public relations offices, sports and school newspapers, Office of Research or Photography Services. Work must be done on campus, under supervision of a working professional in the field, in consultation with a faculty member.

1194 Practicum in Debate/Forensics (1-3)
Prerequisite: Consent of instructor. Practical work in the University debate and forensics program, supervised by a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than 6 credit hours may be earned in departmental practicum courses.

1195 Seminar in Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Consent of instructor. In-depth study of topics pertaining to current research in the department or otherwise of timely interest to students or faculty.

1196 Practicum in Radio (1-3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1110 and consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Practical work at the campus radio station, supervised by a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than 6 credit hours may be earned in departmental practicum courses.

1197 Practicum in Television/Film (1-3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1110 and consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Practical work at one of the campus television studios or for the UM-St. Louis Television/Film Club, supervised by a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than 6 credit hours may be earned in departmental practicum courses.

2210 Television Production I (3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1110 or consent of instructor. A study of the basic theories and practices of remote television production. The areas of producing and directing in the field will be studied. The class will provide the student with practical experience in remote camera operation and basic editing techniques. Lab arranged.

2212 Broadcast Writing and Reporting (3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1110 and 3214 or English 3140, or consent of instructor. Elementary principles and practice of writing for radio and television in varied program formats, emphasis on preparation of written materials for news and public affairs presentation. Lecture and lab.

2215 Radio Production II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1114. Study of advanced theories and techniques of audio production, building on principles and skills learned in Radio Production I. Exploration of complex program formats such as radio drama and special problems such as those encountered in recording live music.

2216 Radio News (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1114. Theory and laboratory practice in the gathering, writing, and delivery of news through radio. Lab hours to be arranged.

2217 Script Writing for Business and Industry (3)
Prerequisites: Comm 2210 and 2212. Script writing for training, motivation, education, and other applications. Students will identify and discuss communication problems and solutions in live, slide/tape, video, and film script formats.

2218 Public Policy in Telecommunication (3)
An examination of the structure and operation of domestic, international, commercial and public telecommunication. Regulatory agencies, both private and public, will be considered in terms of their effect on programming and ownership.

2219 Promotion, Publicity, and Advertising in Broadcasting (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1110. Introduction to theory and practice in the planning, execution, and evaluation of persuasive campaigns involving radio and television. Emphasis on concept developments and production elements. Discussion of broadcast ethics.

2228 Public Relations Writing (3)
Same as English 3280. Prerequisite: English 3140 or equivalent. An introduction to the process of planning, producing, and evaluating written public relations messages. Writing assignments include media releases, letters, memos, position papers, background papers, brochures, and reports and proposals.

2230 Small Group Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. Development of communication skills needed in small group decision making. Application of these skills to contemporary problems.

2231Communication in the Organization (3)
Prerequisite: Junior standing or consent of instructor. Course integrates communication theories applicable to the structure and function of organizations. The effect of communication variables on departmental interface, member satisfaction and motivation, leadership and subordinate styles, and perception of the organization by the external environment.

2232 Effective Communication in the Organization: Tool for Leadership (3)
Prerequisites: Junior standing or consent of instructor. Telecourse designed to equip students with communication skills applicable to the organizational context. The course will present effective strategies for the articulation of ideas, with particular emphasis on the development of leadership skills.

2240 Persuasive Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. A study of persuasive communication, including theories, techniques, forms, functions, applications, potential, and limitations for the individual and organizations. Insights from both classical rhetoric and contemporary communication theory.

2241 Argumentation and Debate (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040, or 1041, or consent of instructor. Principles of argumentation and debate with practice in preparing briefs and in delivering spoken arguments in formal debate. Emphasis on analysis of issues, logical reasoning, and audience analysis.

2243 Communication in American Politics (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. Analysis of audience response and media preferences in political campaigns, campaign speeches, candidates' uses of television and other mass media, and measuring effectiveness of campaign communications.

2256 International Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1050 or 1110. Examination of the social, technical, economic, and political factors affecting international broadcasting and transnational media systems.

2271 History of Film to World War II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1070 or consent of instructor. History of world cinema from the late nineteenth century to the 1940s.

2272 History of Film Since World War II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1070 or consent of instructor. History of world cinema from the 1940s to the present day.

3214 News Writing (3)
Same as English 3140. Prerequisite: English 1100 or equivalent. An introduction to news writing and reporting. Course covers basic components of news reporting principles, and news writing style and structure. Daily writing assignments include coverage of speeches, meetings and interviews, accidents, deaths, courts, sports, consumer affairs, and government. Emphasis on clarity, accuracy, and speed.

3310 Television Production II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 2210. Study of advanced theories of television production. Refinement of studio television principles learned in Comm 2210. Exploration of complex program formats. Lab arranged.

3311 Broadcast Management (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1110. Introduction to theories of management, with application to radio and television station operations. Discussion of economic, legal, and ethical problems and issues.

3313 Advanced Video Editing (3)
Prerequisite: Six (6) hours of television production. Study of advanced editing techniques. Exposure to nonlinear formats. Animation and advanced graphics development. Exploration of state of the art editing formats. Lab arranged.

3316 Television News (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 2110. Theory and laboratory practice in the gathering, writing, and delivery of news through television. Lab arranged.

3317 Radio and the Recording Industry (3)
Prerequisite: Junior standing. Historical development and current status of the recording industry, particularly as it interacts with the broadcast industry. Impact of radio and recording technology on the development of rock and other popular music.

3330 Research Methods in Communication I (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1135. Introduction to the fundamental tools of quantitative research in communication. Focus of the course is on reading and comprehending communication research reports rather than conducting quantitative research.

3331 Research Methods in Communication II (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 3330. Extends the study of research methods covered in Com 3330 to the planning and executing of research projects. Students acquire data analysis, research design, and basic measurement skills. Problems of quantitative study unique to the study of communication are explored.

3332 Intercultural Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Junior standing or consent of the instructor. Study of culture as a variable in both interpersonal and collective communicative situations. Emphasis upon opportunities and problems arising from similarities or differences in communication patterns, processes, and codes among various cultural groups.

3333 Communication Audit (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 2231. The application of specific empirical research designs to evaluate communication flows, effectiveness, or channels in complex organizations.

3334 Advertising Media Planning (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1050. A hands-on study of how to determine an advertising budget, select media and develop a strategic plan.

3336 Communication in Advertising (3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1050 and junior standing, or consent of instructor. Overview of components in persuasive messages and how advertising messages and campaigns use various media to reach target audiences .

3340 Male/Female Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Junior standing or consent of instructor. This course explores the influence of gender upon contemporary American communication behavior. Topics include semantic and syntactic variations in male and female speech, gender-role development as process and product of communication, analysis of communication patterns and barriers within gender groups. Mass, public, interpersonal, and dyadic communication contexts are considered.

3340 Rhetorical Criticism (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. The application of rhetorical theories to the analytical and critical explanation of persuasive messages.

3341 Classical Rhetoric and Public Address (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040 or consent of instructor. A survey of the history and theories of persuasion and public address from ancient times to the Renaissance.

3342 Modern Rhetoric and Public Address (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040 or consent of instructor. A survey of the history and theories of persuasion and public address from the post-Renaissance era to the present.

3343 The Rhetoric of Protest (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040. An examination of the persuasive messages and tactics used in social movements and their campaigns.

3344 Advanced Argumentation Theory (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 2241 or consent of instructor. This course focuses on advanced argumentation theory. It is aimed at providing an advanced understanding of the complex issues faced by argumentation scholars.

3345 Theory and Practice of Interviewing (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1040 and junior standing, or consent of instructor. The application of modern communication theory to interview situations. This theory and practicum course is designed to aid the student in mastering specific skills appropriate to specialized settings.

3346 Advanced Interviewing Techniques (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 3345. Examination and application of problem solving and information-gathering methods, with emphasis on specialized situations such as journalistic; health, crisis intervention, and counseling; superior-subordinate relationships and employment. In-class study approach and field interview assignments.

3350 Mass Communication History (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1050 or 1110. Examination of the social, economic, and political factors contributing to the development of American mass media. Emphasis on significant personalities who helped shape its course; analysis of select critical works.

3352 Mass Media Criticism (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1050 or 1060. The study of media content and its effect on society. Reading and viewing of selected works. Independent reading and critical analysis required.

3354 Comparative Telecommunication Systems (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1065 or consent of instructor.. Historical aspects of various systems of telecommunication throughout the world. Examination of American, Canadian, European Community (EC), and other telecommunication systems.

3355 Media Law and Regulation (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1050 or 1110. Discussion of laws affecting the mass media. Exploration of problems and issues in legal regulation of media content, ownership, access, and accountability. Discussion of industry self-regulation and the influence of citizens' organizations.

3358 Communication in Public Relations (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1150. An overview of communication within the area of public relations. Emphasis on ethics, law, professional standards, and written communication. Case study approach.

3360 Health Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1030, 1040, or 1050 or consent of instructor. An analysis of the role communication plays in influencing the health care environment. The course consists of two parts. The first part examines public health care prevention campaigns, e.g., anti-smoking, as well as focusing on the environmental problems, including communication strategies utilizing various media alternatives. The second part focuses on interpersonal and small group communication practices within health-care settings. Consideration of verbal and nonverbal communication research will be explored.

3362 Storytelling (1-3)
Prerequisite: Junior standing or consent of instructor. This course gives an overview of the history of storytelling, types of tales, and appropriate uses for storytelling. The primary emphasis of the course is in developing storytelling skills through preparation, performances, and evaluation.

3370 Documentary Film (3)
Prerequisite: Comm 1070. Consideration of the history, theory, and criticism of nonfiction film. Screening of representative documentary films.

3392 Administration of Cocurricular Activities (3)
Prerequisites: Junior standing and consent of instructor. A survey of the skills required to administer the various cocurricular activities associated with teachers in the secondary schools, such as: operation of debate tournaments, public speaking competitions, and mass media centers.

3393 Internship in Applied Communication (3-6)
Prerequisites: Senior standing, with a least 12 hours of course work in communication theory and rhetoric; an overall GPA of at least 3.0; consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Advanced practical work in business communication, political campaign communication, advertising, public relations, or other forms of organizational or public communication. Work must be done off campus, under supervision of a working professional in the field, in consultation with a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than six hours total credit may be earned in internship courses toward the 36-hour minimum required for the degree.

3394 Internship in Journalism (3-6)
Prerequisites: Senior standing, with at least 12 hours of course work in journalism, mass communication, etc.; an overall GPA of at least 3.0; consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Practical work with an off-campus newspaper, magazine, or other news organization, supervised by a journalism professional in consultation with a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than six hours total credit may be earned in internship courses toward the 36-hour minimum required for the degree.

3395 Special Topics in Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Senior or graduate standing. In-depth study of topics pertaining to current research in the department. May be repeated up to six credit hours if topic is different.

3396 Internship in Radio (3-6)
Prerequisites: Senior standing, with at least 12 hours of course work in radio, broadcasting, etc.; an overall GPA of at least 3.0; consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Practical work at an off-campus radio station, supervised by a professional in consultation with a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than six hours total credit may be earned in internship courses toward the 36-hour minimum required for the degree.

3397 Internship in Television/Film (3-6)
Prerequisites: Senior standing, with at least 12 hours of course work in television, film, video, etc.; an overall GPA of at least 3.0; consent of instructor; open to communication majors only; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Practical work at an off-campus television, film, or video organization, supervised by a television, film, or video professional in consultation with a faculty member. Repeatable, but no more than six hours total credit may be earned in internship courses toward the 36-hour minimum required for the degree.

4335 Seminar in Applied Communication Research (3)
Prerequisites: Comm 1135 and consent of instructor. This course explores the use of communication concepts, theories, methods, and designs in applied field settings with an emphasis on original research.

4357 Media Ethics (3)
Prerequisite: nine hours of philosophy or nine hours communication or consent of instructor. Same as Philosophy 4457. This course is concerned with some of the issues that arise from the intersection of ethics and modern media communications. Attention is given to some of the more specific concerns of media ethics, such as truth, honesty, fairness, objectivity and bias; personal privacy and the public interest; advertising; conflicts of interest; censorship and offensive or dangerous content (pornography, violence). Particular attention will be given to problems posed by the development of personal computer communications through bulletin boards, on-line services, and the Internet.

4390 Directed Readings (3)
Prerequisites: Consent of instructor; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Supervised independent study involving readings, conferences, papers, etc., in one of the department's disciplines: communication theory and rhetoric, or mass communication.

4391 Supervised Research (1-5)
Prerequisites: Junior/senior standing and consent of instructor; not open to students who have any Y or delayed grades outstanding. Supervised field or laboratory research, data collection, literature searches, qualitative or quantitative data analysis, report writing and other techniques used by communication researchers. Repeatable, but no more than 5 credit hours may be earned in supervised research courses.

6400 Seminar in Communication Theory (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Examination of the theoretical, methodological, and philosophy of science issues in the discipline of communication. Examines general, micro, contextual, and interdisciplinary (symbiotic) communication theories. Required of all graduate communication students. (Core Course.)

6405 Introduction to Communication Research Methods (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing.Concerns the logic of scientific inquiry including the discovery, counting, and analysis of material, social, and symbolic facts, and reviews research methods guided by general, micro and contextual communication theories. Provides an orientation to graduate research including proposal development for thesis, internship and paper requirements and includes a theory-based research project of the student's choice. Required of all graduate communication students. (Core Course.)

6406 Introduction to Communication Education Research (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. The development of educational communication research as a social scientific field. Critical evaluation of techniques and problem selection. Emphasis on the function of communication education concept formation and theory.

6411 Seminar in Mass Communication (3)
Examines the communication research literature pertaining to media planning, content, and effects. A broad range of media forms and possible effects are considered.

6431 Seminar in Organizational Communication (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Explores communication theories and topics related to organizational, institutional, and social system contexts and reviews the communication literature on behavior in organizations. Emphasizes a case study approach to the communication strategies used by agencies and corporations. (Core course.)

6435 Seminar in Advanced Applied Communication (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Examines the logic and forms of communication inquiry in solving client-centered problems. Topics include audience ratings and segmentation, targeting, applied and basic research paradigms and approaches to grounding theory. Reviews the use of research by agencies, campaigns and organizations. Includes a team research project. (Core Course.)

6445 Seminar in Advanced Organizational Communication (3)
Prerequisite: Com 6431. Extends the exploration of communication in organizations covered in Com 6431 to more advanced quantitative models of organizational communication. Focuses heavily on the quantitative studies published in communication research literature.

6454 Seminar in Communication Systems and Technologies (3)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Examines innovation in modern communications technologies, their impact on society, and their contribution to the information revolution.

6490 Directed Readings in Communication (1-10)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Individual research on a problem defined by the graduate student and the faculty member in conference. May be repeated once with the consent of the departmental graduate faculty.

6495 Seminar in Special Topics in Communication (3-9)
Prerequisites: Graduate Standing. Selected topics in the study of communication. Review of the communication theory and methods appropriate to the topic. The course includes a research project. May be repeated if the topic is different.

6498 Thesis Research and Preparation (1-10)
Prerequisites: Graduate standing. Individual research for and preparation of the graduate thesis.

6499 Graduate Internship (3-6)
Prerequisites: Graduate standing and approval of graduate coordinator. Individual on-site internship in organizational or mass communication setting. May be repeated.